Enculturation, Socialization and Acculturation
Applied Psychology
Enculturation refers to an individuals’ learning process in understanding the rules, norms, customs, skills, guidelines, and values of a culture to belong in the society; it can be defined as a form of cultural transmission by which a society transmits its culture and behaviour to its members. It is conducted by external surrounding developing members with appropriate models that is based on informal, observational or (non-didactic) learning. (Berry et al, 2007). We understand what is inappropriate and acquire the traditional content of culture by observing the agents of cultural transmission in society like parents, family members, other adults, peers, acquaintances and so on.
Children and immigrants can obtain information, social cues and instructions from respected individuals and elders. A child unconsciously or consciously follows the parents’ culture via observational learning for an example, a Chinese girl would observe and follow the parent’s manner in worshipping, talking, greeting, and eating using chopsticks. This informal learning teaches and instil individuals or groups about the established or prevailing cultural and social norms, values, customs, attitude, guidelines, rituals, and language. Successful enculturation results in cultural competence, the new member is accepted by the society as a functional and responsible member who’s able to carry out their role in the community and know what’s acceptable and unacceptable by the society.
Socialization refers to the didactic, formal learning process where people learn on how to be proficient member of the society by understanding societal norms and expectations and accepting society’s beliefs and values. It is a form of cultural transmission by which a society deliberately shapes the behaviour of its developing members through instruction (Berry et al, 2007). Unlike enculturation, socialization occurs via specific training and instructions that educates on acquisition of culturally appropriate behaviours. Just as enculturation it can be acquired by the same cultural transmission processes and agents such vertical transmission (parents, uncles, senior family members), oblique transmission (other adults — Imams, Priests) and Horizontal transmission (Friends, classmates).
Socialization process teaches a person on what he or she must know, for an example, children are thought how to use objects such as mobile, books, bicycle, utensils, and clothes. They are instructed by their socialization agents on how to relate to family members, friends, respected individuals, and strangers. Children are thought to hold on to their biological impulses and look for the toilet to relieve themselves rather than wetting their clothes. Adults who find themselves in a new situation or environment where they must interact with individuals with varying cultural norms and customs also learn through instructions to help them perform various roles. Socialization processes educates norms and forms personality by encouraging specific attitudes and beliefs; girls/women are educated on how to be daughters, wives, and mothers since small. It applies for boys/men as well, Muslim men in Iran are expected to publicly express their religious faith by self-inflicting pain when commemorating death of leaders.
Acculturation refers to the cultural transmission or the process of changes, adaptations, and adjustments of cultural groups or individual because of interchange and cultural contact with a different culture that is dominant. Unlike enculturation and socialization, it is intercultural involving two or more culture and arises from the influence of other individual and institutions belonging to predominant culture; an individual adopts, learns, and adjusts their values, understanding, behaviours and norms to match the prevailing culture in society. It is often found among immigrants that move from one state to another and attempt to incorporate the new culture with themselves by adopting traits of culture that is not native to them. Immigrants learn certain cultural traits and behaviours that are inappropriate in new country for an example, an American travelling to a dominant Muslim state may encounter that it is not the norm for men to hug nor shake hands with conservative Muslim women due their religious practices and faith. Acculturation is necessary for individuals to the better adapt to new surrounding for an example, a European who moves to China may teach their children on how to use chopstick to consume food.
Theories of acculturation suggest that the process is not unidirectional but bi-directional where cultural changes happen for both immigrant and host society members. This cultural burrowing may not always be bi-directional as it the less dominant culture borrows traits the more dominant ones. Accepting the new culture does not always mean relinquishing one’s own culture entirely, people adopt different acculturation strategies to cope in new environments. Berry (1994, 2001) identified four types of acculturation strategies such as assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization based on if it is important for individual to develop relationship with host society and whether if it is important to maintain cultural heritage. In the integration strategy, individuals want to maintain their culture of origin, ethnicity whilst adhering to new dominant culture. In the assimilation strategy, an individual chooses and adapts to the dominant culture, over his/her native heritage culture. This may come due to fear of feeling left out, concern on whether they can cling on to native cultural heritage and rely on their own community depending on its size and resourcefulness. In separation, a person rejects the host culture and chooses the culture of origin, this may lead to certain complications whilst in marginalization and individual does not identifies with either culture.
Acculturation if continued for a prolonged period will lead to assimilation, this risk is not present in enculturation or socialization. The native culture of an individual is forsaken or forgotten as he/she learns and adapts to the new culture completely. Marriage is an example of assimilation as the bride adapts into new socio-cultural environment by application of the combination of native and local culture. Minorities can influence the majority culture, but it depends on how persistent the minority culture is and how the majority cultural groups perceive the minority cultural groups as fear may lead to stereotypes, prejudice, and discriminatory practices. Enculturation and socialization are essential for survival in society for an individual however, acculturation is not as it is an interactive and continuous process that evolves through communication of immigrants within the new host environment.
Unlike the other two processes, acculturation leads to modification of existing culture resulting in amalgamation of two or more cultures; this can commonly be perceived in religious practices, music, dance, and food. In Britain non-western cuisines such as Chinese and Indian food are combined with the local preference and are very popular. When two cultures clash, individuals might consider maintaining cultural heritage up to varying degree due to multiple factors. Grandparent of immigrants may emphasise grandchildren to speak their native language, follow cultural norms and customs for the continuity and survival of culture; (Hakim et al, 2016) show that education level and fluency of host language impacts the level of acculturation process, as those with higher education levels are less likely to participate with native cultural practices. (Sussman, 2002) explains the cultural acculturation in transmission cycle of migrants and show that enculturation and socialization result in behavioural similarities within cultures and behavioural differences between cultures. (Yoon, 2013, Prince, 1968) found that acculturation to host culture increases chances of depression and the integration strategy had the most favourable mental health outcomes, followed by assimilation, separation, and marginalization.
